Papillomaviruses in the causation of human cancers?a brief historical account, Med.Laborator.docx


Table 2Rare genetic causes of neutropenia and neutrophil dysfunction The presentation is usually cyclic mouth ulceration, which typically occurs at the neutrophil nadir.

More significant invasive infection may also occur. Mood change just before the nadir is often marked. Symptoms may improve with age. The diagnosis is often delayed because by the time a neutrophil count is checked the nadir has passed and the count is already increasing again. If checked at the onset of ulcers the count will be low.

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There is a compensatory monocytosis at the time of the neutrophil nadir. The diagnosis can only be confirmed by serial full blood counts with full differential, three endometrial cancer test weekly over 4—6 weeks.

Neutrophils may disappear completely. Treatment is with prophylactic co-trimoxazole, continuously or either side of the predicted nadir.

More severe infections require prompt cultures and intravenous antibiotics. Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor G-CSF prevents a dramatic drop but does not abolish the cycle, which shortens to approximately 14 days. There is, however, a risk of myeloid leukaemia with chronic G-CSF therapy and this should be used with circumspection.

Severe congenital neutropenia Four different genetic variants of SCN have been reported. The disorder is autosomal dominant and homozygous defects have not been reported. The neutropenia is however static. Rare cases have been associated with autosomal dominant mutations in the transcriptional repressor Gfi1 gene, causing over-expression of elastase and overflow onto the cell membrane: these papillomaviruses in the causation of human cancers?a brief historical account also have lymphopenia.

WASP mutations have been associated with X-linked neutropenia. Treatment is with papillomaviruses in the causation of human cancers?a brief historical account factors or with stem cell transplantation.

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This is a congenital severe neutropenia due to a neutrophil maturation defect with arrest at the pro-myelocyte stage. This is genetically distinct from severe congenital neutropenia and has been associated with mutations in the HAX- 1 gene.

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Immunoglobulins are raised; there is a compensatory monocytosis, eosinophilia, and a thrombocytosis. Stem cell transplantation may be used as treatment.

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Co-trimoxazole prophylaxis is necessary. This is an autosomal papillomaviruses in the causation of human cancers?a brief historical account syndrome of hereditary exocrine pancreatic insufficiency, accompanied by neutropenia, abnormal neutrophil chemotaxis, thrombocytopenia, anaemia and metaphyseal chrondrodysplasia.

Studies suggest that it controls gene expression in multiple organs brain, bone, blood and cell adhesions and is involved in rRNA synthesis. Hypogammaglobulinaemia with recurrent sinopulmonary infections may also occur. Responses to polysaccharide antigens may be absent. Haematopoeitic stem cell transplantation has also been tried.

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SDF-1 is essential for normal myeloid maturation and differentiation; absence of SDF-1 increases granulocyte apoptosis and causes myelokathexis white blood cell retention. WHIM syndrome presents early in childhood with recurrent bacterial infections, developing into bronchiectasis. Neutrophil function is normal. Hypogammaglobulinaemia is present with reduced B cell numbers, especially memory B cells.

Warts papillomavirus infection develop later and are extensive and confluent; genital warts will predispose to cervical carcinoma. Rare patients have cardiac defects. Treatment will involve the use of prophylactic antibiotics, immunoglobulin replacement therapy where humoral immune function is impaired, and G-CSF to increase neutrophil emigration even though levels in vivo may be raised.

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LAD-1 and LAD-2 can be identified fairly simply by the abnormalities of the surface expression of the affected molecules. The commonest causes of impaired neutrophil chemotaxis are secondary causes such as diabetes, burns, uraemia, dialysis papillomaviruses in the causation of human cancers?a brief historical account malnutrition especially zinc and iron deficiency.

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Clearly these need to be excluded first. Rare cases may be due to defects in other chains CD11c? These defects lead to an inability of the phagocytic cells to migrate to sites of inflammation. Skin infections, intestinal and perianal ulcers and fistulae are typical, but typically there is an absence of pus and inflammation, due the failure of neutrophils to migrate to sites of infection.

Periodontitis occurs in older children and may lead to loss of teeth.

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Immunisations may leave scarred nodules. The diagnosis is highly dependent on the clinical presentation and can be confirmed by flow cytometric analysis of the expression of the relevant surface markers in LAD-1 and LAD Stimulation with phorbol esters to look for up- regulation may be necessary in mild—moderate phenotypes.

The treatment is early bone marrow transplantation, although moderate phenotypes may be difficult to transplant. The diagnosis of primary or secondary neutrophil defects requires in the papillomaviruses in the causation of human cancers?a brief historical account instance an awareness of the potential and then the ability to follow it up with appropriate tests.

Secondary neutrophil dysfunction is extremely common. Basic tests such as the differential white count and blood film, as well as simple enzymatic tests, can provide much useful information. However, rare immunodeficiencies may require more specialised testing available only through large immunology laboratories and it is essential that suspected cases are discussed promptly with paediatric or adult immunologists at an early stage, particularly where stem cell transplantation may be considered.

Activarea limfocitelor T - rolul moleculelor adaptator Activarea LT poate avea loc, insa, numai daca sunt indeplinite anumite conditii: a sa fie activate de antigene T-dependente; b activarea lor sa aiba loc in cadrul unei cooperari celulare, la care sa participe celulele prezentatoare de antigen APC ; acestea - spre deosebire de LT - dispun pe membranele lor de receptori de captare a antigenelor opsonizate CR si FcgR si de un echipament enzimatic adecvat procesarii acestora; activarea LT se realizeaza papillomaviruses in the causation of human cancers?a brief historical account pe o cale ocolita, care implica captarea antigenelor de catre APC si prezentarea unor fragmente rezultate din procesarea acestora pe membranele lor in complex cu moleculele MHC catre LT; c pentru a se atinge un nivel adecvat de activare a LT, cooperarea APC-LT trebuie sa fie bidirectionala, respectiv, cele 2 papillomaviruses in the causation of human cancers?a brief historical account trebuie sa se activeze reciproc.

In functie de sensul, in care se realizeaza, aceasta cooperare este de 2 tipuri: anterograda si retrograda. Cooperarea anterograda se exercita dinspre APC catre limfocitul T, adica in aceeasi directie cu sensul prezentarii antigenice.

Activarea limfocitului T se realizeaza prin transmiterea unor semnale activatoare catre profunzimea citoplasmei acestuia pe 2 cai distincte. Transductia semnalelor pe calea TCR-CD3 calea principala se soldeaza cu activarea metabolica si stimularea diviziunilor celulare expansiunea clonalape cand transductia semnalelor pe calea CD28 calea secundara se soldeaza cu stimularea functiilor efectorii ale limfocitelor T, ele devenind producatoare fie de interleukine limfocitele THfie de mediatori cu rol distructiv limfocitele TC.

Expunerea unor cantitati suplimentare de antigen Ag contribuie la stimularea suplimentara a LT, care - la randul lui - poate stimula in sens retrograd si mai mult APC etc.

La scara de organ limfoid, de principiu, declansarea raspunsului imun poate avea loc in mod eficient, atunci cand limfocitele T stimulate antigenic in cadrul cooperarii lor cu APC, sunt activate metabolic, sunt mai numeroase si, in fine, sunt pe cale de a-si definitiva maturarea.

Activarea in sens anterograd a LT parcurge invariabil 2 etape distincte, prima fiind etapa Ag-independenta si a doua etapa Ag-dependenta.

In cursul etapei Ag-independente, se stabilesc contacte intime si pe suprafete intinse intre membranele APC papillomaviruses in the causation of human cancers?a brief historical account LT, ca urmare a angajarii - intre cele 2 celule - de legaturi prin intermediul cuplurilor de adeziune intercelulara. Acestea sunt primele legaturi, care se constituie, intrucat cei 2 liganzi au o foarte mare afinitate unul fata de celalalt. Aceste legaturi se stabilesc mai tarziu, intrucat cei 2 liganzi au o afinitate reciproca mai redusa.

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In plus, aceasta etapa conteaza, de asemenea, si pentru pregatirea activarii limfocitului T. Etapa Ag-nespecifica are loc in permanenta, adica si atunci cand APC nu expun nici un Ag, dar si atunci cand acestea expun Ag, dar acestea nu au fost inca recunoscute de catre TCR; cu alte cuvinte, se poate spune ca limfocitele T realizeaza "supraveghere imunologica" permanenta a APC, verificand astfel in mod continuu daca acestea expun sau nu diverse antigene.

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Acest semnal se transmite prin CD4 sau CD8 catre PTK p56lckcare - suferind anumite modificari conformationale care intereseaza mai ales centrul catalitic - isi exteriorizeaza tirozina din pozitiacare autofosforilandu-se conduce la inhibitia enzimei.

Rolul biologic al acestei inhibitii este acela de a abroga sau sista raspunsul LT la contactul lor cu Recurrent respiratory papillomatosis in babies, care nu expun antigene, evitandu-se papillomavirus p16 un raspuns fata de propriile molecule MHC. Primind acest semnal, CD45 isi valideaza proprietatea hpv viren behandlung a fi enzima si, comportandu-se ca o protein- tirozinfosfataza PTPea preia fosfatul de pe tirozina a PTK p56lckcare prin defosforilare se activeaza.

La randul ei, PTK p56lck odata activata incepe sa fosforileze diverse substrate, printre care si unele enzime, ceea ce - in final - conteaza pentru activare metabolica a LT. Semnalele ajunse la lanturile x sunt transmise si catre ZAP70, care activandu-se preia fosfatul de pe CD45 si il transmite mai departe catre PLC, rezultand activarea en-zimei, moment din care este declansata cascada fosfatidilinozitolilor cu eliberarea de IP3 si DGA.

Acest factor patrunzand intranuclear stimuleaza diviziunile mitotice si activeaza intr-o anumita masura genele pentru interleukine. Aceasta enzima - pe de o parte - fosforileaza diverse seturi de enzime contribuind astfel la activarea metabolismului LT, iar - pe de alta parte -fosforiland inhibitorul NF-kB, activeaza acest factor, care patrunzand intranuclear activeaza prin intermediul unor mediatori secunzi atat genele pentru IL2, cat si hpv treatment of the mouth receptorul acesteia, care este CD Semnalele generate sunt transmise catre profuzimea limfocitului T prin segmentele intracitoplasmatice ale CD28 catre un factor transcriptional specific, papillomaviruses in the causation of human cancers?a brief historical account in acest caz este CDRC RC - complex receptorial.

La randul lui, CDRC activat, patrunde intranuclear, unde stimuleaza CDRE RE - element receptorprin intermediul caruia, ca si al unor mesageri secunzi, sunt - in final - activate majoritatea genelor pentru interleukine.

Cooperarea cognitiva si noncognitiva dintre cele 2 celule se realizeaza, nu ca urmare a unor contacte aleatorii intre receptorii lor de suprafata, ci ea are ca baza polarizarea limfocitului T in raport cu APC la nivel membranar si citoplasmatic si constituirea intre cele 2 celule a ceea ce se numeste sinapsa imunologica sau centrul de activare supramoleculara SMACin cadrul careia aceste legaturi apar intr-o anumita ordine cronologica si prezinta o anumita topografie in cadrul membranelor celulare.

Polarizarea LT, aflat in contact cu APC, implica redistributia sistemului de microtubuli si aparatului Golgi intre nucleu si versantul membranar situat catre APC, urmata de concentrarea in aceeasi regiune a principalilor receptori, papillomaviruses in the causation of human cancers?a brief historical account in recunoasterea antigenica.